#📓 #📚 #🟠 # Ethical Decision Making and Behavior ![[calendar-plus.svg]] <small>Nov 20, 2021</small> | ![[calendar-clock.svg]] <small>Jan 03, 2023</small> 🏷️ [[ethics]] **Authors:** [[C. E. Johnson]] **Citation:** Johnson, C. E. (2012). Ethical Decision Making and Behavior. In _Meeting the ethical challenges of leadership: Casting light or shadow_ (7th Edition, pp. 235–270). Sage Publications. --- # Summary This chapter describes the four components of Rest's model of ethical behavior. Suggests ways that leaders and organizations can support and encourage ethical behavior among their followers. # Notes #### p. 235 - We can make better choices by first understanding how we make ethical decisions and then by taking a systematic approach to doing so. #### p. 236 - There are several models of ethical decision making and action. In the world of business ethics, Powers and Vogel identify six elements of moral reasoning and behaviors relevant in organizational settings: 1. moral imagination 2. moral identification and ordering 3. moral evaluation 4. tolerating moral disagreement and ambiguity 5. integrate managerial competence with moral competence 6. moral obligation ([note on p.236](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/9J9NFRRI?page=2)) #### p. 236 - [[Rest's model of moral behavior]] is most widely used and is based on four components: 1. [[moral sensitivity]] (recognition) 2. [[moral judgement]] 3. [[moral focus]] (motivation) 4. [[moral character]] #### p. 237 - The greater the moral intensity of an issue, the more likely that a person will take note and respond ethically. One can build moral intensity by: - illustrating the significant harm or benefit a situation can cause to many people (magnitude of consequences) - establishing social consensus or agreement that a behavior is moral or immoral (legal or illegal, approved or forbidden by an association) - demonstrating probability that the act will happen and will cause harm or benefit - showing that the consequences will happen soon (temporal immediacy) - proving that one person or group will greatly suffer due to a decision (concentration of effect) ([note on p.237](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/9J9NFRRI?page=3)) #### p. 237 - There are [[ways to increase moral sensitivity]] #### p. 237 - Several factors can prevent us from recognizing ethical issues. - May not consider ethics in our typical ways of thinking or mental models. - May be reluctant to use moral terminology (like values, justice, right, or wrong) to describe decisions in order to avoid controversy. - May believe that staying silent makes us appear strong and capable. - May fall victim to [[ethical fading]] #### p. 238 - [[moral emotions|Moral emotions]] can be an important clue that we are facing an ethical dilemma. Can be triggered even if we don't have a personal stake in an event. ([note on p.238](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/9J9NFRRI?page=4)) #### p. 241 - Cognitive moral development is the process by which people develop their moral reasoning abilities over time. Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg argued that individuals progress through three levels of moral development, each with two stages: 1. [[preconventional thinking]] 2. [[conventional thinking]] 3. [[principled reasoning]] Each stage is more advanced than the previous. Complexity of reasoning increases as the stages progress and people become less self-centered. - Kohlberg found most adults are Level II thinkers. Fewer than 20% of American adults ever reach Stage 5 and almost no one reaches Stage 6. ([note on p.241](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/9J9NFRRI?page=7)) #### p. 241 - Criticisms of Kohlberg's model include: - establishes [[deontology|deontological]] ethics as superior to other ethical approaches - applies more to societal issues than individual ethical decisions - question whether people go through rigid series of moral stages as opposed to engaging in many ways of thinking about a problem ([note on p.241](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/9J9NFRRI?page=7)) #### p. 242 - Rest addressed criticism of Kohlbergs model of the stages of development by replacing them with [[developmental schemas]]. #### p. 242 - Measures of moral development show that moral reasoning generally increases with age and education across all cultures. ([note on p.242](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/9J9NFRRI?page=8)) #### p. 243 - People are more likely to make wise [[moral judgement|moral judgements]] if coworkers and supervisors encourage and model ethical behavior. > Principled leaders can boost the moral judgement of a group by encouraging members to adopt more sophisticated ethical schemas ([Johnson 2012:243](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/9J9NFRRI?page=9)) > The best ethical thinkers base their choices on widely accepted ethical guidelines. ([Johnson 2012:243](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/9J9NFRRI?page=9)) #### p. 244 - Self-interest and hypocrisy undermine [[moral focus]]. A person may want to do the right think but find their integrity "overpowered" by personal cost for acting in ethical manner. Others engage in [[moral hypocrisy]]. #### p. 245 - Moral motivation is influenced by rewards and drops when reward system reinforces unethical behavior. ([note on p.245](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/9J9NFRRI?page=11)) Positive emotions make people more optimistic and more likely to follow moral choices and help others. - Depression lowers motivation and other negative emotions contribute to unethical and antisocial behaviors. ([note on p.245](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/9J9NFRRI?page=11)) #### p. 245 - Leaders and organizations need to create ethically rewarding environments to increase [[moral focus]] of employees. Reduce the costs of behaving morally by instituting policies and procedures that make it easier to report unethical behavior, combat discrimination, etc. Align rewards with desired behavior. ([note on p.245](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/9J9NFRRI?page=11)) #### p. 246 - In addition to virtues, a strong will, self-confidence, and an internal locus of control make it more likely for someone to persist with ethical choices and behaviors. ([note on p.246](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/9J9NFRRI?page=12)) ## My Questions & Thoughts --- # Other References