#📓 #📚 #🟠 # Ethical foundations and perspectives ![[calendar-plus.svg]] <small>Nov 20, 2021</small> | ![[calendar-clock.svg]] <small>Jan 03, 2023</small> 🏷️ [[ethics]] **Authors:** [[C. G. Christians]] **Citation:** Christians, C. G. (2013). Ethical foundations and perspectives. In C. G. Christians, M. Fackler, K. B. Richardson, P. J. Kreshel, & R. H. Woods (Eds.), _Media ethics: Cases and moral reasoning_ (New International Edition 9e, pp. 1–22). Pearson Higher Ed. --- # Notes #### p. 2 - Expressions of values are not enough to determine whether an action or decision is ethical. > Moral thinking is a systematic process: A judgment is made and action taken. ([Christians 2013:2](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=2)) #### p. 3 - Ethical analysis involves several steps that are modeled by the [[Potter Box]]. The Potter Box introduces four dimensions of moral analysis that help in identifying where misunderstandings occur. *([note on p.3](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=3))* #### p. 3 - By understanding the underlying values and principles guiding decisions, we can analyze the moral reasoning process rather than argue the merits of a specific decision. *([note on p.3](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=3))* #### p. 4 - Choosing loyalties is significant step in making a moral decision and needs most scrutiny in analysis. - Where do our loyalties lie as we make a final judgement? *([note on p.4](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=4))* #### p. 6 - [[Potter Box]] compromises between universal ethics and [[relativism]]. Discrete community norms are considered in analyzing/evaluating values and loyalties. That is balanced with consideration of explicit ethical principle. *([note on p.6](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=6))* More than one answer to an ethical question can be defended by using the [[Potter Box]]. - Immoral behavior cannot be justified. *([note on p.7](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=7))* #### p. 7 - Resolution of an ethical issue can be determined at several points during the analysis. When there are competing values, resolution can occur while considering an ethical principle. If more than one ethical principle applies, conflicts can be addressed in terms of adequacy of the theories and through metaphysics or theology. > Our values constitute the frame of reference in which theories, decisions, and situations make sense to us. ([Christians 2013:8](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=8)) Sometimes ethical choice can't be resolved until loyalties are considered. *([note on p.7](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=7))* - Naming principles and loyalties helps us think critically about conflicting values. *([note on p.8](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=8))* #### p. 9 - Important difference between values and ethics. - [[values|Values]] are present in every aspect of human experience - they just are - [[ethics|Ethics]] emphasizes reasoning ability and justification. *([note on p.9](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=9))* #### p. 9 - First two steps in the [[Potter Box]] process are descriptive of what actually happens, and the second two steps are normative about what ought to happen. *([note on p.9](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=9))* > ethics involves an understanding of theology and philosophy as well as debates in the history of ideas over justice, virtue, the good, and so forth. ([Christians 2013:9](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=9)) #### p. 9 - No one [[moral principles|ethical principle]] can resolve all questions and dilemmas. One step in decision-making process is identifying the right theory and how it applies. *([note on p.9](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=9))* #### p. 9 - There are many ethical principles, but they can be grouped into five categories. 1. [[virtue ethics|virtue]] 2. [[deontology|duty]] 3. [[utilitarianism|utility]] 4. [[rights based ethics|rights]] 5. [[ethics of care|love]] These principles or theories are not authoritative, but provide common language that serve as ethical guidelines. *([note on p.9](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=9))* #### p. 10 - [[Aristotle's Mean]] and [[Confucius's Golden Mean]] are prime examples of virtue principles. Applies well to extremely complicated situations with lots of ambiguity and uncertainty. Doesn't apply in situations where there is no reasonable middle, such as when an action is outright wrong, not just when practiced in excess. Aristotle's Mean doesn't necessarily mean the exact average, but depends on the context of the individuals/groups involved and the weight of the moral issue. *([note on p.10](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=10))* #### p. 12 - Kant's [[categorical imperative]] is an example of a duty principle. Categorical imperatives must be obeyed no matter what, even if one has to sacrifice their natural inclinations and socially accepted standards. [[Sir David Ross]] developed another version of duty ethics that argues that objective moral truths are self-evident and therefore universal. *([note on p.12](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=12))* #### p. 15 - Principles of [[utilitarianism|utility]] were first developed by British philosophers [[Jeremy Bentham]] and [[John Stuart Mill]] with the idea being that happiness or pleasure is the ultimate end goal. - [[Mill's Principle of Utility]] Later utilitarians expanded on happiness to be more than just pleasure, but total amount of value produced. Think of the consequences and determine how much benefit and how much harm would result for everyone affected and choose the option that maximizes value or minimizes loss. Requires accurately predicting consequences, which can be difficult. *([note on p.15](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=15))* #### p. 16 - Rawl's [[veil of ignorance]] is an example of a [[rights based ethics|rights]] principle. For [[John Rawls]], fairness is the fundamental point of justice. When there is inherent inequality, we must step behind "veil of ignorance" to make decisions without bias. - Any inequalities that are allowed to exist must benefit the least advantaged party. *([note on p.16](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=16))* #### p. 18 - The [[Golden Rule]] is one of many examples of a [[ethics of care|love]] principle. Classic contribution from Judeo-Christian religion that argues humans have on moral command: to love God and humankind. All other obligations are derived from this. *([note on p.18](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=18))* #### p. 19 - Another example of a love principle is Nel Noddings's [[ethics of care]]. Avoiding harm to others is not enough, must show compassion, nurturing and resolving of conflicts. Moving beyond one's own interests to an empathy for the experiences and views of the other, who then reciprocates. *([note on p.19](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=19))* #### p. 19 - In determining loyalties, we must clarify who will be affected by our decision and who we feel obligated to support. Five categories of obligation: 1. [[duty to ourselves]] 2. duty to supporters 3. [[duty to organization]] 4. [[duty to professional colleagues]] 5. [[duty to society]] *([note on p.19](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=19))* #### p. 21 - Integration of two levels of [[Potter Box]] is where and how ethical decisions are made. Lower half of Potter Box deals with analytical matters while upper half deals with sociological context. Loyalty component is pivotal because the conceptual analysis can't be judged until we understand the implications for individuals, organizations and social groups. From perspective of [[ethics of care]], considering only the ethical principle without considering its impact on the people involved can cause needless harm. *([note on p.21](zotero://open-pdf/library/items/F3ZVS4VK?page=21))* ## My Questions & Thoughts --- # Other References